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<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">gesj</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2071-9388</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2542-1565</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Russian Geographical Society</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.24057/2071-9388-2025-4183</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">gesj-4467</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>RESEARCH PAPER</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>Статьи</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Majority Filter For Enhancing Pixel-Based Random Forest Land Cover Classification In Sukajaya District, Bogor Regency</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title></trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Rivai</surname><given-names>Fathan Aldi</given-names></name></name-alternatives><email xlink:type="simple">r.fathan.aldi@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Tjahjono</surname><given-names>Boedi</given-names></name></name-alternatives><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Munibah</surname><given-names>Khursatul</given-names></name></name-alternatives><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Nofrizal</surname><given-names>Adenan Yandra</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Albertov 6, 128 43, Prague</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff xml:lang="en" id="aff-1"><institution>Department of Soil Science and Land Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, IPB University</institution><country>Indonesia</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en" id="aff-2"><institution>Department of Applied Geoinformatics and Cartography, Faculty of Science, Charles University</institution><country>Czech Republic</country></aff><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>30</day><month>12</month><year>2026</year></pub-date><volume>18</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>171</fpage><lpage>182</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Rivai F., Tjahjono B., Munibah K., Nofrizal A., 2026</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2026</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Rivai F., Tjahjono B., Munibah K., Nofrizal A.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Rivai F., Tjahjono B., Munibah K., Nofrizal A.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://ges.rgo.ru/jour/article/view/4467">https://ges.rgo.ru/jour/article/view/4467</self-uri><abstract><p>High-quality land cover data are essential for environmental policy, spatial planning, and ecosystem monitoring. However, pixel-based classification methods, while widely used due to their practicality, often suffer from salt-and-pepper noise, which undermines map reliability. This study aimed to integrate Random Forest (RF) classification and majority filtering to enhance the quality of land cover mapping in Sukajaya District, Bogor Regency. RF was applied to Sentinel-2 image data with varying numbers of trees (ntree) to determine the optimal model performance. Subsequently, majority filtering was applied to each classification result to reduce noise and improve spatial coherence. The evaluation employed multiple accuracy metrics, including User’s Accuracy (UA), Producer’s Accuracy (PA), F1-Score, Overall Accuracy (OA), and Kappa Coefficient (KC). Comprehensive accuracy increased with the ntree until reaching an optimal point. Beyond this point, additional ntree resulted in diminishing returns. Applying majority filtering as a post-processing procedure led to further improvements in classification accuracy. While majority filtering can reduce classification noise and improve the visual quality of land cover maps, it also carries the risk of removing small, accurately classified land cover patches. This consequence is rarely discussed in similar studies. These findings highlight the importance of integrating pixel-based machine learning classification with majority filtering in land cover classification workflows, while emphasising a trade-off that tends to favour visual accuracy over the preservation of spatial detail.</p></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>Diminishing return</kwd><kwd>Majority filter</kwd><kwd>Pixel-based classification</kwd><kwd>Random Forest</kwd><kwd>Salt-and-pepper noise</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Adhikari J.N., Bhattarai B.P., Rokaya M.B. and Thapa T.B. (2022). Land use/land cover changes in the central part of the Chitwan Annapurna Landscape, Nepal. PeerJ, 10, e13435. DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13435</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Adhikari J.N., Bhattarai B.P., Rokaya M.B. and Thapa T.B. (2022). 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