<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">gesj</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2071-9388</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2542-1565</issn><publisher><publisher-name>Russian Geographical Society</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.24057/2071-9388-2024-3123</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">gesj-3489</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>RESEARCH PAPER</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>Статьи</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Inaccuracy of relative elevations on uavbased digital elevation models without precise reference information</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title></trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Zorina</surname><given-names>Victoria V.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Leninskie Gory 1, Moscow 119991 </p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">zorinavv@my.msu.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Entin</surname><given-names>Andrey L.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Leninskie Gory 1, Moscow 119991 </p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff xml:lang="en" id="aff-1"><institution>Department of Cartography and Geoinformatics, Faculty of Geography, Lomonosov Moscow State University</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2024</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>05</day><month>07</month><year>2024</year></pub-date><volume>17</volume><issue>2</issue><fpage>26</fpage><lpage>35</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Zorina V.V., Entin A.L., 2024</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2024</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Zorina V.V., Entin A.L.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Zorina V.V., Entin A.L.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://ges.rgo.ru/jour/article/view/3489">https://ges.rgo.ru/jour/article/view/3489</self-uri><abstract><p>Imagery obtained from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is widely used for land surface modelling. Recent research prove that digital elevation models (DEMs) created from UAV imagery are characterized by a high rate of accuracy and reliability. Most of these studies are focused on assessing absolute elevation accuracy of the UAV DEMs, but the accuracy of relative elevations (i.e., accuracy of reproducing of local elevation differences within DEM) also should be considered. In this paper, we focus on the precision of replicating relative elevations in DEMs derived from imagery captured via UAVs without precise coordinate reference. To evaluate this accuracy, we use datasets of aerial images processed in two different methods: one with on-board coordinates obtained from a GNSS receiver, and the other based on precise coordinates calculated with the Post-Processing Kinematic (PPK) method. The sites selected for assessment are not look like each other in terms of terrain and forest cover characteristics to track the difference of modelling in the divergent areas. Constructed DEMs were compared with reference fragments of global DEMs by the statistical indices for the difference fields. The findings indicate that the absence of an accurate coordinate reference does not have a substantial impact on the precision of reproducing relative elevations in the DEM. This makes it possible to use UAV materials without precise coordinate reference for modelling in most geographical studies, where the error of terrain steepness values of 0.9° can be considered acceptable.</p></abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV)</kwd><kwd>unmanned aerial imagery</kwd><kwd>digital elevation model (DEM)</kwd><kwd>digital surface model (DSM)</kwd><kwd>GNSS</kwd><kwd>post-processing kinematic</kwd><kwd>accuracy</kwd><kwd>relative elevations</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group><funding-statement xml:lang="en">Geoscan Gemini UAV, hardware and Agisoft Metashape software were provided by the Centre of Collective Usage “Geoportal MSU”. Aerial photography of Site 1 was supported by RSF project 21-17-00058. Aerial photography of the Site 2, processing and analysis of the results were carried out under the state assignment (project number 121051400061-9).</funding-statement></funding-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">ALOS Global Digital Surface Model (DSM) Product Description. (2019) Earth Observation Research Center, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">ALOS Global Digital Surface Model (DSM) Product Description. (2019) Earth Observation Research Center, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">ASF engineering. (2015). ASF Radiometrically Terrain Corrected ALOS PALSAR products. Product guide</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">ASF engineering. (2015). ASF Radiometrically Terrain Corrected ALOS PALSAR products. Product guide</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">ASTER Global DEM Validation Summary Report. (2009). ASTER GDEM Validation Team: METI/ERSDAC, NASA/LPDAAC, USGS/EROS. In cooperation with NGA and Other Collaborators</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">ASTER Global DEM Validation Summary Report. (2009). ASTER GDEM Validation Team: METI/ERSDAC, NASA/LPDAAC, USGS/EROS. In cooperation with NGA and Other Collaborators</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Barba S., Barbarella M., Di Benedetto A., Fiani M., Gujski L. and Limongiello M. (2019). Accuracy Assessment of 3D Photogrammetric Models from an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Drones, 3(4), 79. DOI: 10.3390/drones3040079</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Barba S., Barbarella M., Di Benedetto A., Fiani M., Gujski L. and Limongiello M. (2019). Accuracy Assessment of 3D Photogrammetric Models from an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle. Drones, 3(4), 79. DOI: 10.3390/drones3040079</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Benassi F., Dall’Asta E., Diotri F., Forlani G., Morra di Cella U., Roncella R. and Santise M. (2017). Testing Accuracy and Repeatability of UAV Blocks Oriented with GNSS-Supported Aerial Triangulation. Remote Sensing, 9(2), 172. DOI: 10.3390/rs9020172</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Benassi F., Dall’Asta E., Diotri F., Forlani G., Morra di Cella U., Roncella R. and Santise M. (2017). Testing Accuracy and Repeatability of UAV Blocks Oriented with GNSS-Supported Aerial Triangulation. Remote Sensing, 9(2), 172. DOI: 10.3390/rs9020172</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Biljecki F., Ledoux H. and Stoter J. (2016). Generation of multi-LOD 3D city models in CityGML with the procedural modelling engine Random3Dcity. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, IV-4/W1, 51–59. DOI: 10.5194/isprs-annalsIV-4-W1-51-2016</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Biljecki F., Ledoux H. and Stoter J. (2016). Generation of multi-LOD 3D city models in CityGML with the procedural modelling engine Random3Dcity. ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, IV-4/W1, 51–59. DOI: 10.5194/isprs-annalsIV-4-W1-51-2016</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Deev E., Borodovskiy A. and Entin A. (2023). Earthquake-induced deformation at archaeological sites in southeastern Gorny Altai (Siberia, Russia). Archaeological Research in Asia, 34, 100431. DOI: 10.1016/j.ara.2023.100431</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Deev E., Borodovskiy A. and Entin A. (2023). Earthquake-induced deformation at archaeological sites in southeastern Gorny Altai (Siberia, Russia). Archaeological Research in Asia, 34, 100431. DOI: 10.1016/j.ara.2023.100431</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Eisenbeiss H. (2009). UAV photogrammetry, 1 Band [ETH Zurich; Application/pdf ]. DOI: 10.3929/ETHZ-A-005939264</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Eisenbeiss H. (2009). UAV photogrammetry, 1 Band [ETH Zurich; Application/pdf ]. DOI: 10.3929/ETHZ-A-005939264</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Famiglietti N.A., Cecere G., Grasso C., Memmolo A. and Vicari A. (2021). A Test on the Potential of a Low Cost Unmanned Aerial Vehicle RTK/PPK Solution for Precision Positioning. Sensors, 21(11), 3882. DOI: 10.3390/s21113882</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Famiglietti N.A., Cecere G., Grasso C., Memmolo A. and Vicari A. (2021). A Test on the Potential of a Low Cost Unmanned Aerial Vehicle RTK/PPK Solution for Precision Positioning. Sensors, 21(11), 3882. DOI: 10.3390/s21113882</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Farr T.G., Rosen P.A., Caro E., Crippen R., Duren R., Hensley S., Kobrick M., Paller M., Rodriguez E., Roth L., Seal D., Shaffer S., Shimada J., Umland J., Werner M., Oskin M., Burbank D. and Alsdorf D. (2007). The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Reviews of Geophysics, 45(2), RG2004. DOI: 10.1029/2005RG000183</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Farr T.G., Rosen P.A., Caro E., Crippen R., Duren R., Hensley S., Kobrick M., Paller M., Rodriguez E., Roth L., Seal D., Shaffer S., Shimada J., Umland J., Werner M., Oskin M., Burbank D. and Alsdorf D. (2007). The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. Reviews of Geophysics, 45(2), RG2004. DOI: 10.1029/2005RG000183</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ferreira Z. and Cabral P. (2021). Vertical Accuracy Assessment of ALOS PALSAR, GMTED2010, SRTM and Topodata Digital Elevation Models: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Geographical Information Systems Theory, Applications and Management, 116–124. DOI: 10.5220/0010404001160124</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ferreira Z. and Cabral P. (2021). Vertical Accuracy Assessment of ALOS PALSAR, GMTED2010, SRTM and Topodata Digital Elevation Models: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Geographical Information Systems Theory, Applications and Management, 116–124. DOI: 10.5220/0010404001160124</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Fujisada H., Urai M. and Iwasaki A. (2012). Technical Methodology for ASTER Global DEM. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 50(10), 3725–3736. DOI: 10.1109/TGRS.2012.2187300</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Fujisada H., Urai M. and Iwasaki A. (2012). Technical Methodology for ASTER Global DEM. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 50(10), 3725–3736. DOI: 10.1109/TGRS.2012.2187300</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Geoscan Gemini Manual. (2023).</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Geoscan Gemini Manual. (2023).</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Guan S., Zhu Z. and Wang G. (2022). A Review on UAV-Based Remote Sensing Technologies for Construction and Civil Applications. Drones, 6(5), 117. DOI: 10.3390/drones6050117</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Guan S., Zhu Z. and Wang G. (2022). A Review on UAV-Based Remote Sensing Technologies for Construction and Civil Applications. Drones, 6(5), 117. DOI: 10.3390/drones6050117</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hawker L., Uhe P., Paulo L., Sosa J., Savage J., Sampson C. and Neal J. (2022). A 30 m global map of elevation with forests and buildings removed. Environmental Research Letters, 17(2), 024016. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/ac4d4f</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hawker L., Uhe P., Paulo L., Sosa J., Savage J., Sampson C. and Neal J. (2022). A 30 m global map of elevation with forests and buildings removed. Environmental Research Letters, 17(2), 024016. DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/ac4d4f</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ihsan H.M. (2021). Vertical accuracy assessment on Sentinel-1, ALOS PALSAR, and DEMNAS in the Ciater Basin. Jurnal Geografi Gea, 21 (1), 16-25.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ihsan H.M. (2021). Vertical accuracy assessment on Sentinel-1, ALOS PALSAR, and DEMNAS in the Ciater Basin. Jurnal Geografi Gea, 21 (1), 16-25.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kaplan E.D., Hegarty J. (2017) Understanding GPS: principles and applications, 2nd edn. Artech House, London</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kaplan E.D., Hegarty J. (2017) Understanding GPS: principles and applications, 2nd edn. Artech House, London</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Karlson M., Bastviken D., Reese H. (2021) Error Characteristics of Pan-Arctic Digital Elevation Models and Elevation Derivatives in Northern Sweden. Remote Sens, 13, 4653. DOI: 10.3390/rs13224653</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Karlson M., Bastviken D., Reese H. (2021) Error Characteristics of Pan-Arctic Digital Elevation Models and Elevation Derivatives in Northern Sweden. Remote Sens, 13, 4653. DOI: 10.3390/rs13224653</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Liu X., Lian X., Yang W., Wang F., Han Y. and Zhang Y. (2022). Accuracy Assessment of a UAV Direct Georeferencing Method and Impact of the Configuration of Ground Control Points. Drones, 6(2), 30. DOI: 10.3390/drones6020030</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Liu X., Lian X., Yang W., Wang F., Han Y. and Zhang Y. (2022). Accuracy Assessment of a UAV Direct Georeferencing Method and Impact of the Configuration of Ground Control Points. Drones, 6(2), 30. DOI: 10.3390/drones6020030</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Meadows M., Jones S., Reinke K. (2024) Vertical accuracy assessment of freely available global DEMs (FABDEM, Copernicus DEM, NASADEM, AW3D30 and SRTM) in flood-prone environments, International Journal of Digital Earth, 17(1), DOI: 10.1080/17538947.2024.2308734</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Meadows M., Jones S., Reinke K. (2024) Vertical accuracy assessment of freely available global DEMs (FABDEM, Copernicus DEM, NASADEM, AW3D30 and SRTM) in flood-prone environments, International Journal of Digital Earth, 17(1), DOI: 10.1080/17538947.2024.2308734</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mohamad N., Ahmad A. and Md Din A.H. (2022). A review of UAV photogrammetry application in assessing surface elevation changes. Journal of Information System and Technology Management, 7(25), 195–204. DOI: 10.35631/JISTM.725016</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mohamad N., Ahmad A. and Md Din A.H. (2022). A review of UAV photogrammetry application in assessing surface elevation changes. Journal of Information System and Technology Management, 7(25), 195–204. DOI: 10.35631/JISTM.725016</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Neitzel F. and Klonowski J. (2012). Mobile 3D mapping with a low-cost UAV system. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XXXVIII-1/C22, 39–44. DOI: 10.5194/isprsarchives-XXXVIII-1-C22-39-2011</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Neitzel F. and Klonowski J. (2012). Mobile 3D mapping with a low-cost UAV system. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XXXVIII-1/C22, 39–44. DOI: 10.5194/isprsarchives-XXXVIII-1-C22-39-2011</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ngula Niipele J. and Chen J. (2019). The usefulness of alos-palsar dem data for drainage extraction in semi-arid environments in The Iishana sub-basin. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 21, 57–67. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.11.003</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ngula Niipele J. and Chen J. (2019). The usefulness of alos-palsar dem data for drainage extraction in semi-arid environments in The Iishana sub-basin. Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 21, 57–67. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrh.2018.11.003</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Noh M.-J. and Howat I.M. (2017). The Surface Extraction from TIN based Search-space Minimization (SETSM) algorithm. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 129, 55–76. DOI: 10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2017.04.019</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Noh M.-J. and Howat I.M. (2017). The Surface Extraction from TIN based Search-space Minimization (SETSM) algorithm. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 129, 55–76. DOI: 10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2017.04.019</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Padró J.-C., Muñoz F.-J., Planas J. and Pons X. (2019). Comparison of four UAV georeferencing methods for environmental monitoring purposes focusing on the combined use with airborne and satellite remote sensing platforms. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 75, 130–140. DOI: 10.1016/j.jag.2018.10.018</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Padró J.-C., Muñoz F.-J., Planas J. and Pons X. (2019). Comparison of four UAV georeferencing methods for environmental monitoring purposes focusing on the combined use with airborne and satellite remote sensing platforms. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 75, 130–140. DOI: 10.1016/j.jag.2018.10.018</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Porter C. (2018). 2m Topography and Surface Change Detection over the Arctic. Blue waters symposium</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Porter C. (2018). 2m Topography and Surface Change Detection over the Arctic. Blue waters symposium</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Saberi, A., Kabolizadeh, M., Rangzan, K. &amp; Abrehdary, M. (2023). Accuracy assessment and improvement of SRTM, ASTER, FABDEM, and MERIT DEMs by polynomial and optimization algorithm: A case study (Khuzestan Province, Iran). Open Geosciences, 15(1), 20220455. DOI: 10.1515/geo-2022-0455</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Saberi, A., Kabolizadeh, M., Rangzan, K. &amp; Abrehdary, M. (2023). Accuracy assessment and improvement of SRTM, ASTER, FABDEM, and MERIT DEMs by polynomial and optimization algorithm: A case study (Khuzestan Province, Iran). Open Geosciences, 15(1), 20220455. DOI: 10.1515/geo-2022-0455</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit28"><label>28</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Siemonsma D. (2015). The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Collection User Guide.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Siemonsma D. (2015). The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Collection User Guide.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit29"><label>29</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Suchilin A., Belaya N., Voskresensky I., Mikheeva S., Zorina V., Ushakova L., Shaforostov V. and Sokratov S. (2021). Methods for studying the morphology of abrasion-accumulative coast of the West coast of the Crimea using UAV and GNSS (on the example of a land of the territory of Great Sevastopol). InterCarto. InterGIS, 27(1), 351–363. DOI: 10.35595/2414-9179-2021-1-27-351-363</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Suchilin A., Belaya N., Voskresensky I., Mikheeva S., Zorina V., Ushakova L., Shaforostov V. and Sokratov S. (2021). Methods for studying the morphology of abrasion-accumulative coast of the West coast of the Crimea using UAV and GNSS (on the example of a land of the territory of Great Sevastopol). InterCarto. InterGIS, 27(1), 351–363. DOI: 10.35595/2414-9179-2021-1-27-351-363</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit30"><label>30</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Svistunov M.I., Kurbanov R.N., Murray A.S., Taratunina N.A., Semikolennykh D.V., Entin A.L., Deev Ye.V., Zolnikov I.D. and Panin A.V. (2022). Constraining the age of Quaternary megafloods in the Altai Mountains (Russia) using luminescence. Quaternary Geochronology, 73, 101399. DOI: 10.1016/j.quageo.2022.101399</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Svistunov M.I., Kurbanov R.N., Murray A.S., Taratunina N.A., Semikolennykh D.V., Entin A.L., Deev Ye.V., Zolnikov I.D. and Panin A.V. (2022). Constraining the age of Quaternary megafloods in the Altai Mountains (Russia) using luminescence. Quaternary Geochronology, 73, 101399. DOI: 10.1016/j.quageo.2022.101399</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit31"><label>31</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Szypuła B. (2023). Accuracy of UAV-based DEMs without ground control points. GeoInformatica. DOI: 10.1007/s10707-023-00498-1</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Szypuła B. (2023). Accuracy of UAV-based DEMs without ground control points. GeoInformatica. DOI: 10.1007/s10707-023-00498-1</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit32"><label>32</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Takaku J., Tadono T. and Tsutsui K. (2014). Generation of High-Resolution Global DSM from ALOS PRISM. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XL–4, 243–248. DOI: 10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-4-243-2014</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Takaku J., Tadono T. and Tsutsui K. (2014). Generation of High-Resolution Global DSM from ALOS PRISM. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XL–4, 243–248. DOI: 10.5194/isprsarchives-XL-4-243-2014</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit33"><label>33</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tomaštík J., Mokroš M., Surový P., Grznárová A. and Merganič J. (2019). UAV RTK/PPK Method—An Optimal Solution for Mapping Inaccessible Forested Areas? Remote Sensing, 11(6), 721. DOI: 10.3390/rs11060721</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tomaštík J., Mokroš M., Surový P., Grznárová A. and Merganič J. (2019). UAV RTK/PPK Method—An Optimal Solution for Mapping Inaccessible Forested Areas? Remote Sensing, 11(6), 721. DOI: 10.3390/rs11060721</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit34"><label>34</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Topcon HiPer V – user manual. (2012Copyright Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Topcon HiPer V – user manual. (2012Copyright Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit35"><label>35</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Uuemaa E., Ahi S., Montibeller B., Muru M., Kmoch A. (2020) Vertical Accuracy of Freely Available Global Digital Elevation Models (ASTER, AW3D30, MERIT, TanDEM-X, SRTM, and NASADEM). Remote Sens., 12, 3482. DOI: 10.3390/rs12213482</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Uuemaa E., Ahi S., Montibeller B., Muru M., Kmoch A. (2020) Vertical Accuracy of Freely Available Global Digital Elevation Models (ASTER, AW3D30, MERIT, TanDEM-X, SRTM, and NASADEM). Remote Sens., 12, 3482. DOI: 10.3390/rs12213482</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit36"><label>36</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Uysal M., Toprak A.S. and Polat N. (2015). DEM generation with UAV Photogrammetry and accuracy analysis in Sahitler hill. Measurement, 73, 539–543. DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2015.06.010</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Uysal M., Toprak A.S. and Polat N. (2015). DEM generation with UAV Photogrammetry and accuracy analysis in Sahitler hill. Measurement, 73, 539–543. DOI: 10.1016/j.measurement.2015.06.010</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
